A Comprehensive Review of DC Microgrids: Controls, Topologies, Protection and Future Trends
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Lin, Xin
Zamora, Ramon
Sheina, Avy
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MDPI AG
Abstract
Microgrids are important technologies for increasing the penetration of renewable energy sources (RESs). Compared with AC microgrids, DC microgrids avoid frequency regulation and reactive-power compensation. Moreover, many RES interfaces and energy storage systems (ESSs) are DC or DC-link based; therefore, they can be integrated into DC buses with fewer conversion stages, reducing conversion losses. Consequently, DC microgrids have attracted increasing attention. This paper reviews DC microgrid topologies, hierarchical control methods, and protection schemes. First, the representative topologies are compared from the perspectives of structural features, control implications, protection requirements, and application scenarios. Next, primary, secondary, and tertiary control strategies are analyzed, with emphasis on droop control, virtual impedance, virtual inertia, fractional-order control, communication delay, and energy management. Protection issues, including fault detection, fault interruption, and ground-fault protection, are then discussed with respect to topology–control interactions. Finally, future research trends and challenges for DC microgrids are summarized.
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40 Engineering, 4008 Electrical Engineering, 4009 Electronics, Sensors and Digital Hardware, 7 Affordable and Clean Energy, 13 Climate Action, DC microgrid, energy management system, fractional order control, hierarchical control system, protection system
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Fractal and Fractional, ISSN: 2504-3110 (Print); 2504-3110 (Online), MDPI AG, 10(6), 396-396. doi: 10.3390/fractalfract10060396
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© 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
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Except where otherwise noted, this item's license is described as © 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.