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Ecotourism and Community Empowerment: A Case Study of Whale-Watching Tourism in China with Insights from New Zealand

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Thesis embargoed until 7th November 2027(5.62 MB)

Date

2026

Authors

Zhang, Xiao

Supervisor

Liu, Claire
Goh, Sandra
Kim, Peter

Item type

Thesis

Degree name

Doctor of Philosophy

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Publisher

Auckland University of Technology

Abstract

Whale-watching is one of the fastest-growing tourism sectors. However, previous research has paid little attention to the impacts of whale-watching on local communities. Also, research on tourism empowerment has mostly focused on the outcomes of empowerment, with limited exploration of empowerment as a dynamic process and the underlying factors that influence it. Therefore, there is a need to better understand how whale-watching empowers host communities, which factors shape empowerment processes, and how community empowerment impacts the sustainable development of tourism. This study explores the process of community empowerment, factors that influence empowerment (especially sociocultural factors) and their implications for sustainable tourism development in two whale-watching communities: Sanniang Bay, China and Kaikōura, New Zealand. A mixed-methods design was adopted, combining in-depth interviews and questionnaire surveys to comprehensively reveal the complex process of community empowerment and its outcomes. This study finds that community empowerment is a dynamic, ongoing, and context-sensitive process that leads to multidimensional outcomes involving the continuous interaction of different types of power ('power within,' 'power to,' 'power with,' and 'power over'). In Sanniang Bay, tourism management rights are controlled by the government and external enterprises, and residents lack effective channels for participation in decision-making, limiting overall community empowerment. In contrast, in Kaikōura, the residents have greater autonomy in resource management and tourism operations through institutionalised participation mechanisms, and the outcomes of empowerment are more stable and comprehensive. In addition, the study identifies three key factors that influence community empowerment: internal factors, external factors, and factors related to tourism development. At the same time, this study applies Hofstede's revised cultural framework to systematically explain the profound impact of sociocultural factors on the empowerment process. Based on the findings, this study proposes a conceptual framework for the dynamic process of community empowerment, which embraces 'soft' empowerment outcomes (psychological, social, and cultural) and 'hard' empowerment outcomes (economic, political, and environmental). This framework highlights the interactive relationship between intangible interpersonal changes ('soft') and tangible institutional structural changes ('hard') during the empowerment process. Moreover, the study proposes two new concepts: (1) 'Perception of fairness,' which emphasises the role of fairness in psychological empowerment; and (2) 'Authority over cultural representation,' which emphasises the control that communities have in expressing their own culture. This study deepens the theoretical understanding of power dynamics in community empowerment, demonstrating how empowerment can enhance economic, social, and environmental sustainability, as well as community resilience. Methodologically, a China-centred dual case study approach, with Kaikōura used as a supplementary reference case, provides a rigorous yet flexible research pathway for empowerment studies. In practical terms, this study offers implications for tourism policymakers and local communities, emphasising the importance of fair benefit distribution, inclusive governance, sustained community capacity building, and culturally and environmentally sensitive practices. It also highlights community unity, autonomy, and collective organisation as the essential foundations for effective empowerment and sustainable tourism development.

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http://hdl.handle.net/10292/21038

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Doctoral Theses