Phan, LongGatti, AliceLi, NathanielKhoja, AdamKim, RyanRen, RichardHausenloy, JasonZhang, OliverMazeika, MantasHendrycks, DanHan, ZiwenHu, JosephinaZhang, HughZhang, Chen Bo CalvinShaaban, MohamedLing, JohnShi, SeanChoi, MichaelAgrawal, AnishChopra, ArnavNattanmai, AakaashMcKellips, GordonCheraku, AnishSuhail, AsimLuo, EthanDeng, MarvinLuo, JasonZhang, AshleyJindel, KavinPaek, JayHalevy, KasperBaranov, AllenLiu, MichaelAvadhanam, AdvaithZhang, DavidCheng, VincentMa, BradFu, EvanDo, LiamLass, JoshuaYang, HubertSunkari, SuryaBharath, VishruthAi, VioletLeung, JamesAgrawal, RishitZhou, AlanChen, KevinKalpathi, TejasXu, ZiqiWang, GavinXiao, TylerMaung, ErikLee, SamYang, RyanYue, RoyZhao, BenYoon, JuliaSun, XiangwanSingh, AryanPeng, ClarkOsbey, TylerWang, TaozhiEcheazu, DarylWu, TimothyPatel, SpandanKulkarni, VidhiSundarapandiyan, VijaykaartiLe, AndrewNasim, ZafirYalam, SrikarKasamsetty, RiteshSamal, SohamSun, DavidShah, NiharSaha, AbhijeetZhang, AlexNguyen, LeonNagumalli, LaasyaWang, KaixinWu, AidanTelluri, AnwithYue, SummerWang, AlexandrDodonov, DmitryNguyen, TungLee, JaehoAnderson, DaronDoroshenko, MikhailStokes, Alun CennythMahmood, MobeenPokutnyi, OleksandrIskra, OlegWang, Jessica PLevin, John-ClarkKazakov, MstyslavFeng, FionaFeng, Steven YZhao, HaoranYu, MichaelGangal, VarunZou, ChelseaWang, ZihanPopov, SergueiGerbicz, RobertGalgon, GeoffSchmitt, JohannesYeadon, WillLee, YongkiSauers, ScottSanchez, AlvaroGiska, FabianRoth, MarcRiis, SørenUtpala, SaitejaBurns, NoahGoshu, Gashaw MNaiya, Mohinder MaheshbhaiAgu, ChidozieGiboney, ZacharyCheatom, AntrellFournier-Facio, FrancescoCrowson, Sarah-JaneFinke, LennartCheng, ZeruiZampese, JenniferHoerr, Ryan GNandor, MarkPark, HyunwooGehrunger, TimCai, JiaqiMcCarty, BenGarretson, Alexis CTaylor, EdwinSileo, DamienRen, QiuyuQazi, UsmanLi, LianghuiNam, JungbaeWydallis, John BArkhipov, PavelShi, Jack Wei LunBacho, ArasWillcocks, Chris GCao, HangruiMotwani, Sumeetde Oliveira Santos, EmilyVeith, JohannesVendrow, EdwardCojoc, DoruZenitani, KengoRobinson, JoshuaTang, LongkeLi, YuqiVendrow, JoshuaFraga, Natanael WildnerKuchkin, VladyslavMaksimov, Andrey PupasovMarion, PierreEfremov, DenisLynch, JaysonLiang, KaiquMikov, AleksandarGritsevskiy, AndrewGuillod, JulienDemir, GözdenurMartinez, DakotahPageler, BenZhou, KevinSoori, SaeedPress, OriTang, HenryRissone, PaoloGreen, Sean RBrüssel, LinaTwayana, MoonDieuleveut, AymericImperial, Joseph MarvinPrabhu, AmeyaYang, JinzhouCrispino, NickRao, ArunZvonkine, DimitriLoiseau, GabrielKalinin, MikhailLukas, MarcoManolescu, CiprianStambaugh, NateMishra, SubrataHogg, TadBosio, CarloCoppola, Brian PSalazar, JulianJin, JaehyeokSayous, RafaelIvanov, StefanSchwaller, PhilippeSenthilkumar, ShaipraneshBran, Andres MAlgaba, AndresVan den Houte, KelseyVan Der Sypt, LynnVerbeken, BrechtNoever, DavidKopylov, AlexeiMyklebust, BenjaminLi, BikunSchut, LisaZheltonozhskii, EvgeniiYuan, QiaochuLim, DerekStanley, RichardYang, TongMaar, JohnWykowski, JulianOller, MartSahu, AnmolArdito, Cesare GiulioHu, YuzhengKamdoum, Ariel Ghislain KemogneJin, AlvinVilchis, Tobias GarciaZu, YuexuanLackner, MartinKoppel, JamesSun, GongboAntonenko, Daniil SChern, SteffiZhao, BingchenArsene, PierrotCavanagh, Joseph MLi, DaofengShen, JiaweiCrisostomi, DonatoZhang, WenjinDehghan, AliIvanov, SergeyPerrella, DavidKaparov, NurdinZang, AllenSucholutsky, IliaKharlamova, ArinaOrel, DaniilPoritski, VladislavBen-David, ShalevBerger, ZacharyWhitfill, ParkerFoster, MichaelMunro, DanielHo, LinhSivarajan, ShankarHava, Dan BarKuchkin, AlekseyHolmes, DavidRodriguez-Romero, AlexandraSommerhage, FrankZhang, AnjiMoat, RichardSchneider, KeithKazibwe, ZakayoClarke, DonKim, Dae HyunDias, Felipe MeneguittiFish, SaraElser, VeitKreiman, TobiasVilchis, Victor Efren GuadarramaKlose, ImmoAnantheswaran, UjjwalaZweiger, AdamRawal, KaivalyaLi, JefferyNguyen, JeremyDaans, NicolasHeidinger, HalineRadionov, MaksimRozhoň, VáclavGinis, VincentStump, ChristianCohen, NivPoświata, RafałTkadlec, JosefGoldfarb, AlanWang, ChenguangPadlewski, PiotrBarzowski, StanislawMontgomery, KyleStendall, RyanTucker-Foltz, JamieStade, JackRogers, T RyanGoertzen, TomGrabb, DeclanShukla, AbhishekGivré, AlanAmbay, John ArnoldSen, ArchanAziz, Muhammad FayezInlow, Mark HHe, HaoZhang, LingKaddar, YounesseÄngquist, IvarChen, YanxuWang, Harrison KRamakrishnan, KalyanThornley, ElliottTerpin, AntonioSchoelkopf, HaileyZheng, EricCarmi, AvishyBrown, Ethan DLZhu, KelinBartolo, MaxWheeler, RichardStehberger, MartinBradshaw, PeterHeimonen, JPSridhar, KaustubhAkov, IdoSandlin, JenniferMakarychev, YuryTam, JoannaHoang, HieuCunningham, David MGoryachev, VladimirPatramanis, DemosthenesKrause, MichaelRedenti, AndrewAldous, DavidLai, JesyinColeman, ShannonXu, JiangnanLee, SangwonMagoulas, IliasZhao, SandyTang, NingCohen, Michael KParadise, OrrKirchner, Jan HendrikOvchynnikov, MaksymMatos, Jason OShenoy, AdithyaWang, MichaelNie, YuzhouSztyber-Betley, AnnaFaraboschi, PaoloRiblet, RobinCrozier, JonathanHalasyamani, ShivVerma, ShreyasJoshi, PrashantMeril, EliMa, ZiqiaoAndréoletti, JérémySinghal, RaghavPlatnick, JacobNevirkovets, VolodymyrBasler, LukeIvanov, AlexanderKhoury, SeriGustafsson, NilsPiccardo, MarcoMostaghimi, HamidChen, QijiaSingh, VirendraKhánh, Tran QuocRosu, PaulSzlyk, HannahBrown, ZacharyNarayan, HimanshuMenezes, AlineRoberts, JonathanAlley, WilliamSun, KunyangPatel, ArkilLamparth, MaxReuel, AnkaXin, LinweiXu, HanmengLoader, JacobMartin, FreddieWang, ZixuanAchilleos, AndreaPreu, ThomasKorbak, TomekBosio, IdaKazemi, FereshtehChen, ZiyeBálint, BiróLo, Eve JYWang, JiaqiNunes, Maria Inês SMilbauer, JeremiahBari, M SaifulWang, ZihaoAnsarinejad, BehzadSun, YewenDurand, StephaneElgnainy, HossamDouville, GuillaumeTordera, DanielBalabanian, GeorgeWolff, HewKvistad, LynnaMilliron, HsiaoyunSakor, AhmadEron, MuratAndrew Favre, DOShah, ShaileshZhou, XiaoxiangKamalov, FiruzAbdoli, SherwinSantens, TimBarkan, ShaulTee, AllisonZhang, RobinTomasiello, AlessandroDe Luca, G BrunoLooi, Shi-ZhuoLe, Vinh-KhaKolt, NoamPan, JiayiRodman, EmmaDrori, JacobFossum, Carl JMuennighoff, NiklasJagota, MilindPradeep, RonakFan, HongluEicher, JonathanChen, MichaelThaman, KushalMerrill, WilliamFirsching, MoritzHarris, CarterCiobâcă, StefanGross, JasonPandey, RohanGusev, IlyaJones, AdamAgnihotri, ShashankZhelnov, PavelMofayezi, MohammadrezaPiperski, AlexanderZhang, David KDobarskyi, KostiantynLeventov, RomanSoroko, IgnatDuersch, JoshuaTaamazyan, VageHo, AndrewMa, WenjieHeld, WilliamXian, RuichengZebaze, Armel RandyMohamed, MohanadLeser, Julian NoahYuan, Michelle XYacar, LailaLengler, JohannesOlszewska, KatarzynaDi Fratta, ClaudioOliveira, EdsonJackson, Joseph WZou, AndyChidambaram, MuthuManik, TimothyHaffenden, HectorStander, DashiellDasouqi, AliShen, AlexanderGolshani, BitaStap, DavidKretov, EgorUzhou, MikalaiZhidkovskaya, Alina BorisovnaWinter, NickRodriguez, Miguel OrbegozoLauff, RobertWehr, DustinTang, ColinHossain, ZakiPhillips, ShaunSamuele, FortunaEkström, FredrikHammon, AngelaPatel, OamFarhidi, FarazMedley, GeorgeMohammadzadeh, ForoughPeñaflor, MadelleneKassahun, HaileFriedrich, AlenaPerez, Rayner HernandezPyda, DanielSakal, TaomDhamane, OmkarMirabadi, Ali KhajegiliHallman, EricOkutsu, KenchiBattaglia, MikeMaghsoudimehrabani, MohammadAmit, AlonHulbert, DavePereira, RobertoWeber, SimonHandokoPeristyy, AntonMalina, StephenMehkary, MustafaAly, RamiReidegeld, FrankDick, Anna-KatharinaFriday, CarySingh, MukhwinderShapourian, HassanKim, WanyoungCosta, MarianaGurdogan, HubeybKumar, HarshCeconello, ChiaraZhuang, ChaoPark, HaonCarroll, MicahTawfeek, Andrew RSteinerberger, StefanAggarwal, DaattavyaKirchhof, MichaelDai, LinjieKim, EvanFerret, JohanShah, JainamWang, YuzhouYan, MinghaoBurdzy, KrzysztofZhang, LixinFranca, AntonioPham, Diana TLoh, Kang YongRobinson, JoshuaJackson, AbramGiordano, PaoloPetersen, PhilippCosma, AdrianColino, JesusWhite, ColinVotava, JacobVinnikov, VladimirDelaney, EthanSpelda, PetrStritecky, VitShahid, Syed MMourrat, Jean-ChristopheVetoshkin, LavrSponselee, KoenBacho, RenasYong, Zheng-Xinde la Rosa, FlorenciaCho, NathanLi, XiuyuMalod, GuillaumeWeller, OrionAlbani, GuglielmoLang, LeonLaurendeau, JulienKazakov, DmitryAdesanya, FatimahPortier, JulienHollom, LawrenceSouza, VictorZhou, Yuchen AnnaDegorre, JulienYaln, YiğitObikoya, Gbenga DanielMichael Pokorny, RaiBigi, FilippoBoscá, MCShumar, OlegBacho, KaniuarRecchia, GabrielPopescu, MaraShulga, NikitaTanwie, Ngefor MildredLux, Thomas CHRank, BenNi, ColinBrooks, MatthewYakimchyk, AlesiaQuinn Liu, HuanxuCavalleri, StefanoHäggström, OlleVerkama, EmilNewbould, JoshuaGundlach, HansBrito-Santana, LeonorAmaro, BrianVajipey, VivekGrover, RynaaWang, TingKratish, YosiLi, Wen-DingGopi, SivakanthCaciolai, Andreade Witt, Christian SchroederHernández-Cámara, PabloRodolà, EmanueleRobins, JulesWilliamson, DominicRaynor, BradQi, HaoSegev, BenFan, JingxuanMartinson, SarahWang, Erik YHausknecht, KaylieBrenner, Michael PMao, MaoDemian, ChristophKassani, PeymanZhang, XinyuAvagian, DavidScipio, Eshawn JessicaRagoler, AlonTan, JustinSims, BlakePlecnik, RebekaKirtland, AaronBodur, Omer FarukShinde, DPLabrador, Yan Carlos LeyvaAdoul, ZahraZekry, MohamedKarakoc, AliSantos, Tania CBShamseldeen, SamirKarim, LoukmaneLiakhovitskaia, AnnaResman, NateFarina, NicholasGonzalez, Juan CarlosMaayan, GabeAnderson, EarthDe Oliveira Pena, RodrigoKelley, ElizabethMariji, HodjatPouriamanesh, RasoulWu, WentaoFinocchio, RossAlarab, IsmailCole, JoshuaFerreira, DanyelleJohnson, BryanSafdari, MohammadDai, LiangtiArthornthurasuk, SiriphanMcAlister, Isaac CMoyano, Alejandro JoséPronin, AlexeyFan, JingRamirez-Trinidad, AngelMalysheva, YanaPottmaier, DaphinyTaheri, OmidStepanic, StanleyPerry, SamuelAskew, LukeRodrguez, Raúl Adrián HuertaMinissi, Ali MRLorena, RicardoIyer, KrishnamurthyFasiludeen, Arshad AnilClark, RonaldDucey, JoshPiza, MatheusSomrak, MajaVergo, EricQin, JuehangBorbás, BenjáminChu, EricLindsey, JackJallon, AntoineMcInnis, IMJChen, EvanSemler, AviGloor, LukShah, TejCarauleanu, MarcLauer, PascalHuy, Tran DucShahrtash, HosseinDuc, EmilienLewark, LukasBrown, AssafAlbanie, SamuelWeber, BrianVaz, Warren SClavier, PierreFan, YiyangPoesia Reis e Silva, GabrielTony Lian, LongAbramovitch, MarcusJiang, XiMendoza, SandraIslam, MuratGonzalez, JuanMavroudis, VasiliosXu, JustinKumar, PawanGoswami, Laxman PrasadBugas, DanielHeydari, NasserJeanplong, FerencJansen, ThorbenPinto, AntonellaApronti, ArchimedesGalal, AbdallahZe-An, NgSingh, AnkitJiang, Tongof Arc Xavier, JoanAgarwal, Kanu PriyaBerkani, MohammedZhang, GangDu, Zhehangde Oliveira Junior, Benedito AlvesMalishev, DmitryRemy, NicolasHartman, Taylor DTarver, TimMensah, StephenLoume, Gautier AbouMorak, WiktorHabibi, FarzadHoback, SarahCai, WillGimenez, JavierMontecillo, Roselynn GraceŁucki, JakubCampbell, RussellSharma, AsankhayaMeer, KhalidaGul, ShreenGonzalez, Daniel EspinosaAlapont, XavierHoover, AlexChhablani, GunjanVargus, FreddieAgarwal, ArunimJiang, YiboPatil, DeepakkumarOutevsky, DavidScaria, Kevin JosephMaheshwari, RajatDendane, AbdelkaderShukla, PritiCartwright, AshleyBogdanov, SergeiMündler, NielsMöller, SörenArnaboldi, LucaThaman, KunvarSiddiqi, Muhammad RehanSaxena, PrajviGupta, HimanshuFruhauff, TonySherman, GlenVincze, MátyásUsawasutsakorn, SiranutLer, DylanRadhakrishnan, AnilEnyekwe, InnocentSalauddin, Sk MdMuzhen, JiangMaksapetyan, AleksandrRossbach, VivienHarjadi, ChrisBahaloohoreh, MohsenSparrow, ClaireSidhu, JasdeepAli, SamBian, SongLai, JohnSinger, EricUro, Justine LeonBateman, GregSayed, MohamedMenshawy, AhmedDuclosel, DarlingBezzi, DarioJain, YashaswiniAaron, AshleyTiryakioglu, MuratSiddh, SheeshramKrenek, KeithShah, Imad AliJin, JunCreighton, ScottPeskoff, DenisEL-Wasif, ZienabP, RagavendranRichmond, MichaelMcGowan, JosephPatwardhan, TejalSun, Hao-YuSun, TingZubić, NikolaSala, SamueleEbert, StephenKaddour, JeanSchottdorf, ManuelWang, DianzhuoPetruzella, GerolMeiburg, AlexMedved, TilenElSheikh, AliHebbar, S AshwinVaquero, LorenzoYang, XianjunPoulos, JasonZouhar, VilémBogdanik, SergeyZhang, MingfangSanz-Ros, JorgeAnugraha, DavidDai, YinweiNhu, Anh NWang, XueDemircali, Ali AnilJia, ZhibaiZhou, YuyinWu, JunchengHe, MikeChandok, NitinSinha, AarushLuo, GaoxiangLe, LongNoyé, MickaëlPerełkiewicz, MichałPantidis, IoannisQi, TianboPurohit, Soham SachinParcalabescu, LetitiaNguyen, Thai-HoaWinata, Genta IndraPonti, Edoardo MLi, HanchenDhole, KaustubhPark, JongeeAbbondanza, DarioWang, YuanliNayak, AnupamCaetano, Diogo MWong, Antonio AWLdel Rio-Chanona, MariaKondor, DánielFrancois, PieterChalstrey, EdZsambok, JakobHoyer, DanReddish, JennyHauser, JakobRodrigo-Ginés, Francisco-JavierDatta, SuchandraShepherd, MaxwellKamphuis, ThomZhang, QizhengKim, HyunjunSun, RuijiYao, JianzhuDernoncourt, FranckKrishna, SatyapriyaRismanchian, SinaPu, BonanPinto, FrancescoWang, YinghengShridhar, KumarOverholt, Kalon JBriia, GlibNguyen, HieuQuod Soler Bartomeu, DavidPang, Tony CYWecker, AdamXiong, YifanLi, FanfeiHuber, Lukas SJaeger, JoshuaDe Maddalena, RomanoLù, Xing HanZhang, YuhuiBeger, ClaasKon, Patrick Tser JernLi, SeanSanker, VivekYin, MingLiang, YihaoZhang, XinluAgrawal, AnkitYifei, Li SZhang, ZechenCai, MuSonmez, YasinCozianu, CostinLi, ChanghaoSlen, AlexYu, ShoubinPark, Hyun KyuSarti, GabrieleBriański, MarcinStolfo, AlessandroNguyen, Truong AnZhang, MikePerlitz, YotamHernandez-Orallo, JoseLi, RunjiaShabani, AminJuefei-Xu, FelixDhingra, ShikharZohar, OrrNguyen, My ChiffonPondaven, AlexanderYilmaz, AbdurrahimZhao, XuandongJin, ChuanyangJiang, MuyanTodoran, StefanHan, XinyaoKreuer, JulesRabern, BrianPlassart, AnnaMaggetti, MartinoYap, LutherGeirhos, RobertKean, JonathonWang, DingsuMollaei, SinaSun, ChenkaiYin, YifanWang, ShiqiLi, RuiChang, YaowenWei, AnjiangBizeul, AliceWang, XiaohanArrais, Alexandre OliveiraMukherjee, KushinChamorro-Padial, JorgeLiu, JiachenQu, XingyuGuan, JunyiBouyamourn, AdamWu, ShuyuPlomecka, MartynaChen, JundaTang, MengzeDeng, JiaqiSubramanian, ShreyasXi, HaochengChen, HaoxuanZhang, WeizhiRen, YinuoTu, HaoqinKim, SejongChen, YushunMarjanović, Sara VeraHa, JunwooLuczyna, GrzegorzMa, Jeff JShen, ZewenSong, DawnZhang, Cedegao EWang, ZhunGendron, GaëlXiao, YunzeSmucker, LeoWeng, EricaLee, Kwok HaoYe, ZheErmon, StefanoLopez-Miguel, Ignacio DKnights, TheoGitter, AnthonyPark, NamkyuWei, BoyiChen, HongzhengPai, KunalElkhanany, AhmedLin, HanSiedler, Philipp DFang, JichaoMishra, RitwikZsolnai-Fehér, KárolyJiang, XilinKhan, ShadabYuan, JunJain, Rishab KumarLin, XiPeterson, MikeWang, ZheMalusare, AdityaTang, MaosenGupta, IshaFosin, IvanKang, TimothyDworakowska, BarbaraMatsumoto, KazukiZheng, GuangyaoSewuster, GerbenVillanueva, Jorge PretelRannev, IvanChernyavsky, IgorChen, JialeBanik, DeepayanRacz, BenDong, WenchaoWang, JianxinBashmal, LailaGonçalves, Duarte VHu, WeiBar, KaushikBohdal, OndrejPatlan, Atharv SinghDhuliawala, ShehzaadGeirhos, CarolineWist, JulienKansal, YuvalChen, BingsenTire, KutayYücel, Atak TalayChristof, BrandonSingla, VeerupakshSong, ZijianChen, SanxingGe, JiaxinPonkshe, KaustubhPark, IsaacShi, TiannengMa, Martin QMak, JoshuaLai, SherwinMoulin, AntoineCheng, ZhuoZhu, ZhandaZhang, ZiyiPatil, VaidehiJha, KetanMen, QiutongWu, JiaxuanZhang, TianchiVieira, Bruno HeblingAji, Alham FikriChung, Jae-WonMahfoud, MohammedThi Hoang, HaSperzel, MarcHao, WeiMeding, KristofXu, SihanKostakos, VassilisManini, DavideLiu, YueyingToukmaji, ChristopherYu, EunmiDemircali, Arif EnginSun, ZhiyiDewerpe, IvanQin, HongsenPflugfelder, RomanBailey, JamesMorris, JohnathanHeilala, VilleRosset, SybilleYu, ZishunChen, Peter EYeo, WoongyeongJain, EeshaanChigurupati, SreekarChernyavsky, JuliaReddy, Sai PrajwalVenugopalan, SubhashiniBatra, HunarPark, Core FranciscoTran, HieuMaximiano, GuilhermeZhang, GenghanLiang, YizhuoShiyu, HuXu, RongwuPan, RuiSuresh, SiddharthLiu, ZiqiGulati, SamakshZhang, SongyangTurchin, PeterBartlett, Christopher WScotese, Christopher RCao, Phuong MWu, BenKarwowski, JacekScaramuzza, Davide2026-02-042026-02-042026-01-28Nature, ISSN: 0028-0836 (Print); 1476-4687 (Online), Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 649(8099), 1139-1146. doi: 10.1038/s41586-025-09962-40028-08361476-4687http://hdl.handle.net/10292/20587Benchmarks are important tools for tracking the rapid advancements in large language model (LLM) capabilities. However, benchmarks are not keeping pace in difficulty: LLMs now achieve more than 90% accuracy on popular benchmarks such as Measuring Massive Multitask Language Understanding1, limiting informed measurement of state-of-the-art LLM capabilities. Here, in response, we introduce Humanity’s Last Exam (HLE), a multi-modal benchmark at the frontier of human knowledge, designed to be an expert-level closed-ended academic benchmark with broad subject coverage. HLE consists of 2,500 questions across dozens of subjects, including mathematics, humanities and the natural sciences. HLE is developed globally by subject-matter experts and consists of multiple-choice and short-answer questions suitable for automated grading. Each question has a known solution that is unambiguous and easily verifiable but cannot be quickly answered by internet retrieval. State-of-the-art LLMs demonstrate low accuracy and calibration on HLE, highlighting a marked gap between current LLM capabilities and the expert human frontier on closed-ended academic questions. To inform research and policymaking upon a clear understanding of model capabilities, we publicly release HLE at https://lastexam.ai.Open Access. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.46 Information and Computing Sciences4602 Artificial IntelligenceBioengineeringGeneral Science & TechnologyJournal ArticleOpenAccess10.1038/s41586-025-09962-4