School of Sport, Exercise and Health - Te Kura Hākinakina
Permanent link for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10292/1542
Research in the School of Sport, Exercise and Health covers sport and activity-related areas, as well as performance, nutrition, coaching and human potential. AUT is the home of New Zealand's top sport and fitness facility, AUT Millennium, and the Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ) is New Zealand’s number one sports research institute.
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Item Do the Effects of Interventions Aimed at the Prevention of Childhood Obesity Reduce Inequities? A Re-analysis of Randomized Trial Data From Two Cochrane Reviews(Elsevier BV, 2025-03-04) Palmer, Jennifer C; Davies, Annabel L; Spiga, Francesca; Heitmann, Berit L; Jago, Russell; Summerbell, Carolyn D; Higgins, Julian PT; Inequity in Obesity Prevention Trialists Collaborative GroupBACKGROUND: Public health attempts to prevent obesity in children and young people should aim to minimize health inequalities. Two Cochrane reviews examining interventions aiming to prevent childhood obesity found that interventions promoting (only) physical activity have a small beneficial effect on BMI for people aged 5-18 years, as do interventions promoting physical activity alongside healthy eating for 5-11 year olds. We examined whether the effectiveness of the interventions included in these reviews differed according to eight factors associated with inequity: place, race/ethnicity, occupation, gender/sex, religion, education, socio-economic status, and social capital (the PROGRESS framework). METHODS: We collected data on change in BMI (standardized or unstandardized), subgrouped by baseline measures of PROGRESS factors, for intervention and control groups, from trial authors. We calculated the intervention effect per subgroup (mean difference), then contrasted these to estimate interactions between intervention and the baseline factors. We combined interaction estimates for each factor across trials using meta-analyses. FINDINGS: We collected subgrouped data from 81 trials that took place between 2001 and 2020, involving 84,713 participants. We found no substantial differences in effectiveness of interventions for PROGRESS subgroups in most scenarios. However, in the younger age group (5-11 years), the effect of interventions on standardized BMI appeared to be higher in boys (average difference in mean differences 0.03; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.06; 45 studies, n = 44,740), which was consistent in direction with the BMI effect (average difference in mean differences 0.06 kg/m2; 95% CI -0.02 to 0.13; 31 studies, n = 27,083). INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that those responsible for public health can promote these beneficial interventions without major concerns about increasing inequalities but should be mindful that these interventions may work better in boys aged 5-11 years than girls. More data are needed, so we encourage future trialists to perform subgroup analyses on PROGRESS factors. FUNDING: National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR).Item The Effect of Lightweight Wearable Resistance on the Squat and Countermovement Jumps: Does Load Dampen the Performance-Enhancing Effect of the Stretch-Shortening Cycle?(MDPI AG, 2025-11-18) Kyne, Hamish; Cronin, John BThis study investigated the effects of lightweight wearable resistance on the kinetics and kinematics of squat jumps (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ) with 2%, 4%, and 6% body mass (BM). Twenty male athletes (age: 18.05 ± 0.6 years; weight: 76.4 ± 7.6 kg; height: 182.4 ± 5 cm) were assessed on a force plate. Key variables included jump height (JH), concentric (ConT) and eccentric (EccT) phase durations, concentric impulse (CI), mean force (CMF), mean velocity (CMV), mean power (CMP), and relative metrics. Elastic utilization ratios (EUR) were calculated to quantify stretch-shortening cycle enhancement. Load led to decrements in both jumps but with varying sensitivity. With 2% BM the CMJ significantly reduced JH (−8.6%), EccT (−7%), CMV (−4.1%), rCI (−4.1%), rPP (−4.4%), and velocity at PP (−4.8%), whereas variables in the SJ were non-significant until 4–6% BM. EURs observed the greatest differences with 2% BM with JH, CMV, rCMP, and VPP all significantly decreasing (p < 0.05). The varying sensitivity to load across variables observed in the two jumps supports the hypothesis that SJ and CMJ offer distinct diagnostic insights due to varying MTU contraction dynamics and neural factors. This has implications for WR use in training. Further, absolute metrics showed limited load sensitivity. However, when accounting for body mass, relative metrics revealed substantial declines. This indicates absolute values can misrepresent the effects of WR loading.Item Beyond Jump Height: A Comparison of Concentric Variables in the Squat Jump, Countermovement Jump and Drop Jump for Athletic Profiling(MDPI AG, 2025-11-03) Kyne, Hamish; Cronin, John BJump height provides limited insight into movement strategies and muscle-tendon unit (MTU) contraction dynamics of the squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and drop jump (DJ). This study investigated whether concentric phase variables differ significantly across these jumps. Twenty-three male athletes (age: 18.1 ± 0.7 years) from various sports performed the SJ, CMJ and DJ on a force plate. Variables included jump height (JH), concentric duration (ConT), concentric mean force (CMF), relative concentric mean force (rCMF), and concentric force index (CFI). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in all variables across jump types. The CMJ led to the greatest JH (37.8 ± 4.1 cm) compared to SJ (34.6 ± 4.4 cm) and DJ (31.9 ± 5.0 cm). Conversely, the DJ produced the greatest rCMF (30.1 ± 2.7 N/kg) within the shortest ConT (125 ± 15 ms), compared to the SJ (16.2 ± 0.8 N/kg in 409 ± 48 ms) and CMJ (19.8 ± 1.0 N/kg in 273 ± 24 ms). Minimal shared variance and varied individual athlete rankings across jumps suggest that each jump elucidates different facets of MTU function. As a novel variable, the CFI showed poor correlation with JH (r = −0.103 to 0.002), suggesting it may provide insights beyond jump height alone. These findings support our hypothesis that SJ, CMJ, and DJ offer distinct diagnostic insights into varying MTU contraction dynamics and the physical components underpinning jump performance, indicating that longitudinal monitoring of the CFI and underlying components (rCMF/ConT) across these jumps could enhance athletic profiling.Item Community Wellbeing and Lived Experiences During Urban Redevelopment in New Zealand: Te Hotonga Hapori – Connecting Communities Qualitative Study Protocol(Public Library of Science (PLoS), 2025-10-03) Hinckson, Erica; Ivory, Vivienne; McPhee, Julia; Somerville Ryan, Megan; Chaudhury, Moushumi; Mackay, Lisa; Refiti, Albert; King, Abby C; Ka'ai, Tania; Duncan, ScottCities around the world are growing rapidly, and the demand for housing is subsequently increasing. Many governments have initiated large-scale redevelopment projects to address the problem but planning and implementation can significantly impact the wellbeing of residents. Evidence has shown that people-centred urban planning and redevelopment, including walkable areas, natural environments, and appealing public spaces, can enhance physical, mental, and social wellbeing. The impact of these designs on wellbeing is complex, and without community involvement, there is a risk that redevelopment may not meet the wellbeing needs of the residents. Community Wellbeing and Lived Experiences study is part of Te Hotonga Hapori - Connecting Communities research programme which aims to provide the evidence to improve liveability and wellbeing in neighbourhoods that are undergoing redevelopment. It seeks to empower communities by involving them directly in the redevelopment process. Guided by the culturally informed Te Hotonga Hapori Engagement Framework it comprises 5 components: i) Active relationship building; ii) Historical/cultural realities; iii) Community aspirations; iv) Building bridges; and v) Activation of neighbourhood urban and natural environments. Data collection will be undertaken using the Community Science Aotearoa process that is contextually specific to communities in New Zealand and adapted from the Our Voice Citizen Science Research method. Residents using Te Hotonga Hapori app will collect photos and narratives and share information about their lived experiences during the redevelopment using a six-step process of Engage, Discover, Discuss, Advocate, Change and Re-engage. Descriptive statistics will be produced in relation to the number and typology of photos and narratives collected. Qualitative thematic analysis will be used for narrative data obtained from downloaded app data, and community and group sessions. Braun and Clarke's Thematic Analysis Framework will guide researchers through an iterative process and themes will be developed using the Attride-Stirling Thematic Networks Analytic Tool.Item Masterclass: Are You Getting the Most Out of Your Triple Hop Testing?(Elsevier BV, 2025-11) Sharp, Anthony P; Neville, Jonathon; Cronin, John BThe triple hop test is a widely used, practical tool that allows physical therapists to assess an athlete's readiness to return-to-sport (RTS) following injury. However, recent consensus statements have raised concerns that hop distance alone may be insufficient to capture the complexity of functional recovery or to fully assess inter-limb symmetry, potentially masking readiness and increasing the risk of reinjury. In this Masterclass: exemplar kinetic and kinematic data for the triple hop are detailed; the utility of the quintuple hop introduced; the distinction between outcome and movement strategy variables discussed within an asymmetry context; and, the integration of accessible, cost-effective technologies within a tier-based framework for RTS assessment outlined. The aim of the article is to enhance the evaluation of movement strategies and support clinicians in making more informed and confident RTS decisions.Item What Do We Know (and Not Know) About Adolescent Awkwardness in Youth Sports? A Narrative Review(SAGE Publications, 2025-08-06) Borato, Lucas André; Whatman, Chris; Walters, Simon; Read, PaulAdolescent awkwardness is commonly referenced in sports science and medicine literature and is believed to impact athletic development and injury risk in youth sports. However, this concept is not well understood, and a literature synthesis has yet to be conducted. The aim of this narrative review was to synthesize and evaluate the evidence for adolescent awkwardness. Specifically, we examined how it has been defined and assessed in a youth sports setting. A literature search was conducted in MEDLINE, CINAHL Complete, and SPORTDiscus via EBSCO Health with 21 articles meeting our inclusion criteria. Most authors believe that adolescent awkwardness is a transitory period in which youth experience decreases in coordination and balance, impacting athletic performance and potentially increasing injury risk, yet there is no single accepted definition. There is also no consistency or standardization in the tests used. Measures of balance and lower limb power may be useful for tracking athletic performance across maturation, but their ability to identify a period of adolescent awkwardness appears limited. Some studies observed a decline in sensorimotor function during the growth spurt, while others show continuous improvement or high variability between youth. Cumulatively, it appears that adolescent awkwardness is poorly understood and there is no consensus definition or assessment method, warranting further research.Item The Effect of Resistance Training Proximity to Failure on Muscular Adaptations and Longitudinal Fatigue in Trained Men(International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association, 2025-08-29) Robinson, Zac; Macarilla, Christian; Juber, Matthew; Cerminaro, Rebecca; Benitez, Brian; Pelland, Joshua; Remmert, Jacob; John, Thomas; Hinson, Seth; Dinh, Shawn; Elkins, Ethan; Canteri, Laura; Meehan, Caitlyn; Helms, Eric; Zourdos, MichaelPurpose: This study examined the effect of proximity to failure on hypertrophy, strength, and fatigue. We hypothesized strength gains would be superior in non-failure groups compared to those that include sets to momentary failure, while hypertrophy would be similar in all groups. Methods: 38 men were randomized into four groups (4–6 repetitions in reserve [RIR] per set, 1–3 RIR per set, 0–3 RIR [last set taken to momentary failure], and 0 RIR per set) and completed an eight-week program. Back squat and bench press strength, muscle thickness, subjective fatigue, muscle soreness, and biomarkers (creatine kinase-CK and lactate dehydrogenase-LDH) were assessed. Results: Bench Press strength gains were comparable between the 4–6 RIR (9.05 kg [95% CI: 6.31, 11.8]) and 1–3 RIR (9.72 kg [95% CI: 7, 12.45]) groups, while outcomes in the 0–3 (5.07 kg [95% CI: 2.2, 7.93]) and 0 RIR (0.71 kg [95% CI: -4.41, 5.62]) groups were slightly inferior. Squat strength gains were comparable between 4–6 RIR (13.79 kg [95% CI: 7.43, 20.28]) and 1–3 RIR (18.05 kg [95% CI: 12.12, 23.88]) groups, but data for 0–3 RIR and 0 RIR are difficult to interpret due to poor feasibility of the protocols. For muscle hypertrophy, our data do not provide strong conclusions as to the effects of proximity to failure due to the large variability observed. The indices of fatigue were largely comparable between groups, without strong evidence of the repeated bout effect. Conclusion: These data suggest strength outcomes are comparable when taking sets to either a self-reported 4–6 RIR or 1–3 RIR, while training that includes sets to momentary failure may result in slightly inferior outcomes (i.e., 0–3 and 0 RIR). However, the influence of proximity to failure on hypertrophy remains unclear and our data did not reveal clear differences between groups in any measure of fatigue.Item Do Outcome or Movement Strategy Variables Provide Better Insights into Asymmetries During Multiple-Hops?(MDPI AG, 2025-09-02) Sharp, Anthony; Neville, Jonathon; Nagahara, Ryu; Wada, Tomohito; Cronin, JohnMultiple-hops performed horizontally in series effectively assess return-to-play readiness, as they mimic the propulsive and decelerative demands of sports. Movement strategy variables (kinetic variables) offer more insight into injury recovery than outcome-based measures (kinematic variables) like hop distance alone. This study focused on kinematic and kinetic variables to assess asymmetries during triple-hop (3-Hop) and quintuple-hop (5-Hop) tests with 44 male athletes from university sports clubs and teams. The aim was to determine the magnitude and potential direction of asymmetry and compare the sensitivity of kinematic and kinetic variables. Results showed mean kinematic asymmetries below 7.1% (range: 0.00 to 28.9%), while average kinetic asymmetries were as high as 38.8% (range: 0.0% to 95.4%). These findings suggest that kinetic variables are more sensitive in assessing movement strategy, providing more detailed insight into rehabilitation and return-to-play decisions. The study emphasizes the importance of considering both outcome and movement strategy variables in injury recovery. These results have practical applications for clinicians and coaches supporting those in return-to-play scenarios, as well as those addressing performance deficits, therefore offering valuable information to refine exercise prescriptions and athletic program design.Item The Training Effects of Wearable Resistance on Throwing Performance in Collegiate Baseball Pitchers: A Pilot Study(Human Kinetics, 2025-06-11) Job, Trey DW; Cross, Matthew R; Cronin, John BPurpose: The objective of this study was to explore the effects of training using wearable resistance (WR) applied above the elbow of the throwing arm on throwing velocity, arm speed, shoulder internal and external rotation, strength, and range of motion in baseball pitchers. Methods: College baseball pitchers (N = 17) participated in a volume-matched 6-week throwing program, twice per week, unloaded (quasi-control) or with WR added to the upper arm (intervention). Arm speed was measured with an inertial sensor, throwing velocity via radar gun, shoulder rotator peak force (Fₘₐₓ) with a strain gauge, and range of motion by a goniometer, before and after training. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine differences between groups, time (pre and post), and their interaction with random intercepts for participants. Results: A significant effect from pretesting to posttesting was observed in external-rotation range of motion (η²ₚ =.456, P = .005) and tended to increase more in the control group (interaction, η²ₚ =.261, P = .047). Otherwise, no other statistically significant differences were observed. Conclusion: This was the first WR training study with pitchers, and the lack of clear improvement using upper-arm WR loading was notable. Future researchers should explore the efficacy of lower-arm loading and/or potentially increase training volume as a means of stimulating adaptation.Item Acute Effects of Wearable Resistance Applied to the Throwing Arm on Performance in Baseball Pitchers(Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2024-11-05) Job, Trey; Cronin, John; Crotin, Ryan; Cross, MatthewThis research examined the acute effects of wearable resistance (WR) placed above and below the elbow of the throwing arm of baseball pitchers on throwing characteristics. Ten high school or collegiate baseball pitchers (19.5 6 2.4 years) performed a randomized throwing assessment with and without WR (100, 150, and 200 g) secured to the throwing arm above and below the elbow. Subjects wore an inertial sensor at the elbow to record arm speed; throwing velocity was measured by radar and temporal aspects (stride phase and pitch phase) measured by video. A repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc analyses was used to test the influence of load magnitude and placement, with statistical significance set at p , 0.05. On average, loading significantly influenced arm speed and throwing velocity (h2 p 5 0.32–0.41, p , 0.05), and the effect of loading varied by placement (i.e., above and below elbow) for the latter (h2 p 5 0.64, p , 0.001). Above elbow loading had no significant effect on the throwing variables measured. For below elbow, there were large decreases in arm speed for 150-g and 200-g loads compared with the unloaded trials (25.13 to 26.52%, d 5 0.82–1.03, p , 0.05) and small-to-moderate decreases in throwing velocity with all loads (21.8 to 22.7%,d50.45–0.67,p,0.01). Overall, WR did not significantly alter phase timing. Our results may indicate the effects of WR differences by placement and may have utility in providing graduated overload to throwing musculature, without clearly influencing timing while throwing.Item Relationship of Shoulder Internal and External Rotation Peak Force and Rate of Force Development to Throwing Velocity in High School and Collegiate Pitchers(Elsevier BV, 2024-11) Job, Trey DW; Cross, Matthew R; Cronin, John BThe purpose of this research was to characterize the difference between high school (HS) and collegiate pitcher’s throwing velocity, shoulder internal (IR) and external rotator (ER) maximum strength (Fmax) and rate of force development (RFD) and explore relationships between these measures. Competitive HS and collegiate pitchers (n = 26) participated in a single session assessment in which shoulder rotator isometric Fmax and RFD were quantified via a portable strain gauge device and throwing velocity via radar. Paired t-tests, stepwise linear regression models and correlational analyses were used to answer the questions of interest. No significant differences (p > 0.05) in pitching velocity were observed between HS and collegiate pitchers, and all pitchers were pooled into one sample for subsequent analyses. For both IR and ER models, the explained variance of Fmax with throwing velocity was small (R2 = 0.12–0.13). RFD and arm length did not contribute to the models. Large correlations (r ≥ 0.50; p < 0.001) were observed between IR and ER for Fmax and RFD measures, as well as between Fmax and RFD for IR and ER. In terms of throwing velocity, having strong IR and ER Fmax capabilities would seem more important than the ability to express force quickly in this cohort.Item Shoulder Internal and External Rotation Strength Assessment in Baseball Pitchers: Normative Data and Reliability(National Strength & Conditioning Association (NSCA), 2025-05-01) Job, Trey DW; Cross, Matthew R; Cronin, John BRotator cuff strength assessments are valuable for monitoring throwing athlete injury and performance status. Portable technology enables "in-field" assessment and, therefore, increases utility. The purpose of this study was to quantify the reliability of strain gauge technology for measuring shoulder rotator strength and provide normative strength values for high school and college pitchers. Subjects (n = 15) participated in 3 testing sessions consisting of 5 maximal isometric shoulder internal rotation (IR) and 5 external rotation trials separated by 7 days. Variables of interest included peak force (Fmax), peak torque (Tmax), rate of force development, and rate of torque development. Coefficients of variation ranged from 4.3 to 5.8% for peak values and 16.0-28.5% for rate measures. Intraclass correlation coefficient estimates ranged from 0.79 to 0.89 for peak values, and 0.80-0.91 for rate measures, with IR typically marginally better than ER. Although practitioners need to be mindful of managing error (e.g., through familiarity), peak measures of rotator cuff strength assessed using portable strain gauge are promising for simple field-based monitoring of shoulder health for throwing athletes.Item Gestational Diabetes Detection Thresholds and Infant Growth, Nutrition, and Neurodevelopment at 12–18 Months: A Prospective Cohort Study Within a Randomized Trial(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2025-09-05) Amitrano, F; Manerkar, K; Alsweiler, JM; Conlon, CA; Crowther, CA; Edlin, R; Harding, JE; McCowan, LME; Meyer, MP; Rowan, JA; Rush, EC; McKinlay, CJDObjective: To assess the impact of gestational diabetes(GDM) detection thresholds on infant growth, nutrition, and neurodevelopment at 12-18 months. Design: Prospective cohort study within the GEMS trial(ACTRN12615000290594), which randomized pregnant women to detection of GDM using lower or higher glycemic criteria. The main outcomes were overweight/rapid weight gain; food approach appetitive score; energy intake; cognitive z-score. Result: Compared to control infants, those exposed to GDM detected and treated by higher criteria or by lower but not higher criteria that was untreated, were less likely to have increased overweight/rapid weight gain, possibly with lower energy intake. There were no important differences in appetite and cognition. Infants exposed to GDM by lower but not higher criteria that was treated were similar to controls. Conclusion: Exposure to treated GDM or untreated GDM detected by lower but not higher criteria, was not associated with increased infant risk factors for obesity or adverse cognitive outcomes.Item Editorial: Welcome from Jacoba Matapo and Dr Dion Enari, Chair Associate Professor and Co-Chair of Moanaroa Pacific Research Network(AUT Graduate Research School, Te Mātāpuna: AUT Library , 2024-08-15) Enari, DionItem Effects of Upper Extremity Fatigue on Shooting Accuracy, Kinematics, and Muscle Activation in Basketball Players(University of Ljubljana, 2025-07-21) Yasar, MN; Cilli, M; Bakici, Doğuş; Gul, ANA; Kalk, B; Cinarli, FSFatigue is a critical determinant of sports performance, often impairing athletic precision and efficiency. This study investigated the effects of upper extremity fatigue on shooting accuracy, kinematics, and muscle activity in adolescent basketball players. Twelve participants (age: 15 ± 1.1 yrs; sports experience: 6 ± 2.7 yrs) performed free throws under pre-and post-fatigue conditions. Fatigue was induced through a structured protocol utilizing a graphical user interface to monitor exertion levels. Shooting accuracy was qualitatively assessed based on predefined shot outcome categories. Kinematic variables, joint angles, joint angular velocities, and ball trajectory parameters were analyzed alongside muscle activation of key upper extremity muscles. Post-fatigue analysis revealed a significant decrease in elbow angular velocity (−5.08%, p = 0.041, effect size = 0.59), indicating impaired joint coordination. Additionally, palmaris longus muscle activation declined (−4.68%, p = 0.028, effect size = 0.63), suggesting reduced wrist stability and grip control. Furthermore, shooting accuracy deteriorated, with a significant increase in the frequency of 'Airball' (p < 0.05) and 'Short or uncontrolled shot did not score' (p < 0.05) outcomes. However, no significant differences were observed in the 'Balanced and controlled shot, but did not score' and 'Successful shot' categories. These findings highlight the negative impact of fatigue on neuromuscular control and biomechanics, underscoring the importance of fatigue management strategies in basketball training to maintain shooting efficiency.Item Multi-segment Models for Kinetic Analysis of Women During Pregnancy: A Systematic Review(Elsevier, 2025-08-30) Chen, Jie; Li, Xin; Hume, Patria; Wyatt, Hannah; Choisne, JulieBACKGROUND: During pregnancy, significant physiological, morphological, and hormonal changes profoundly affect women's biomechanics, increasing the risk of falls and musculoskeletal complaints, especially in the third trimester. To understand movement adaptations and musculoskeletal disorders in pregnant women, kinetic analysis using pregnant-specific multi-segment or musculoskeletal models is essential. This review aims to evaluate the development, applications and limitations of such models intended for kinetic analysis in pregnancy. METHODS: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) statement, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and IEEE Xplore databases were searched systematically for kinetic studies involving the pregnant-specific multi-segment models. Quality assessment was completed to assess the methodological quality of the selected studies. RESULTS: A total of 14 different pregnant-specific multi-segment models (including musculoskeletal models) used within 19 kinetic studies were included in this review. Currently, most scaling methods are marker-based and limited by pregnancy-related soft tissue artifacts. Segment inertial parameter estimations were largely based on regression models, which may not adequately capture the high degree of individual variability among pregnant women. Most existing models focus on analyzing lower-limb or lumbar kinetics during daily activities, yet many remain unvalidated and lack detailed lumbopelvic representations. Pregnant-specific musculoskeletal models are scarce and primarily rely on static optimization for lumbar muscle force estimation, which overlooks trunk co-contraction. CONCLUSION: Future research should focus on developing more detailed and validated pregnant-specific models, alongside advanced workflows for more accurate model personalization, to more accurately capture the biomechanical changes across different pregnancy stages and support clinically relevant kinetic analysis.Item International Consensus on the Definition of Functional Training: Modified e-Delphi Method(Taylor and Francis Group, 2025-03-18) Pereira, Hugo V; Teixeira, Diogo S; Fisher, James; Fleck, Steven J; Helms, Eric; Ide, Bernardo N; Izquierdo, Mikel; Nedergaard, Anders; Philips, Stuart; Pinto, Ronei S; Plotkin, Daniel L; Turner, Anthony N; Schoenfeld, Brad JThe inconsistency and disparities in existing functional training definitions have led to confusion when explaining the concept and its potential. The wide range of interpretations suggests that any training approach could be deemed functional, thereby diminishing the significance of the term and significantly limiting its understanding and application. Thus, this paper aimed to develop the first consensual definition of functional training using an international e-Delphi method. From a panel of 31 experts initially selected, 13 participated in the consensus. The panel presented the following definition: 'Functional training is a physical interventional approach that contributes to the enhancement of human performance, according to individual goals, in sports, daily life, rehabilitation, or fitness, and takes into consideration the specificity of the task and the unique responsiveness of each individual'. However, redundancy of the functional training definition emerged as a relevant consideration for this conceptual and methodological advancement, and a proposal to avoid the distinction between functional training and the general concept of training was presented (i.e., no real use of functional training as a concept). It was proposed that a training program or regimen could be analyzed based on a continuum of functionality, which could support further developments in this topic.Item The Association Between Biological Maturity and Injury in Young Females Participating in Sport: A Systematic Review(Elsevier BV, 2025-08-21) Zoellner, Anja; Whatman, ChrisBackground: Injuries in youth sport remain a concern. Biological maturity has been linked to injury risk but there is limited female specific evidence. Aim: To evaluate the evidence for an association between biological maturity and injury in young females participating in sport. Methods: A systematic search was conducted using EBSCO Health database from inception until April 2025. Studies were included if they investigated females in any sport and reported an assessment of biological maturity status and either injury rate or potential factors associated with injury. Study quality and risk of bias and the strength of evidence for findings was determined based on the consistency and quality of studies. Finding: 31 studies (n=10 reporting injury; n=21 reporting risk factors) were included in the review. Evidence supporting an association between injury and maturation was limited. There is moderate evidence of an association between potential injury risk factors and maturation. Most evidence is in the context of lower limb biomechanics during jump/landing tasks and potential risk of knee injury. Conclusion: Current evidence for a link between maturity status and sport related injury in young females is limited, however there is moderate evidence that maturity status is associated with potential knee injury risk factors.Item Return To Sport (RTS) Tests and Criteria Following an Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Reconstruction (ACLR): A Scoping Review(Elsevier B.V., 2025-08-11) Wright, Alexander; Reid, Duncan; Potts, GeoffObjective: Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) surgery is a common procedure to restore knee stability and enable athletes to return to sport (RTS). This scoping review aimed to explore RTS tests and criteria used in decision-making following ACLR surgery. Methods: A scoping review methodology was undertaken. A comprehensive search of MEDLINE, CINAHL, and SPORTDiscus was conducted to identify studies reporting RTS tests and criteria for athletes post-ACLR. Studies involving level I and II sports were included. Data was extracted and study characteristics, RTS criteria, and results were summarised. Results: Of 1703 studies screened, 33 met the inclusion criteria, involving over 6000 participants. RTS criteria showed significant variability across studies, with protocols emphasising limb symmetry indexes (LSI) for strength and jump and hop performance, often set at ≥90 %. RTS timing ranged from a minimum of six to nine months post-surgery. While psychological readiness was frequently reported, assessments of change of direction, agility, and biomechanics were less common. Conclusions: This review highlights the lack of standardisation in RTS protocols, leading to inconsistencies in clinical practice. Developing consistent, evidence-based guidelines is essential to enhance RTS outcomes, minimise re-injury risk, and optimise performance for athletes post-ACLR.Item Supervision during Resistance Training: A Comparison of Trainer and Trainee Perceptions(International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association, 2023-12-01) Fisher, James; Androulakis-Korakakis, Patroklos; Giessing, Jürgen; Helms, Eric; Schoenfeld, Brad; Smith, Dave; Winett, RichardBackground: Resistance training has well-documented health benefits; however, participation and adherence remain overwhelmingly low. Supervision has been evidenced to improve adherence, and produce favourable adaptations compared to unsupervised resistance training. A recent exploratory systematic review and meta-analysis on supervision during resistance training noted a lack of clarity as to the purpose/intent of the supervisor within the body of literature. Methods: An online cross-sectional survey study was conducted in English and distributed primarily across social media platforms and through the authors’ personal and professional networks. The aim of the survey was to compare the perceptions of supervision between trainers and trainees. Secondary outcomes included exploratory analyses of the impact of training experience, sex of participant, and comparison based on supervision type. Results: 468 participants completed all elements of the survey (68% male, 32% female). Of which 236 were personal trainers/strength coaches, and 232 were trainees. In brief, descriptive data from the survey suggest that trainers perceived supervision as more important than trainees for the characteristics and variables measured. Females perceived supervision in resistance training as more important than males. Trainees who engage in supervised resistance training reported supervision to be more important compared to those training alone or with a training partner. Technical coaching was reported to be the most important characteristic of supervision. Finally, trainers and trainees engaging in supervised strength training reported lower injury rates compared to those strength training unsupervised or with a training partner. Qualitative data are presented regarding perceptions of how and why supervision should differ based on sex, age, and experience, as well as reporting injury experiences. Conclusion: Our data suggest that the perceived benefits of supervision vary based on population. We posit that the present data have implications for both trainers and trainees, which might serve to strengthen a relationship by aligning roles and realising goals in supervised resistance training. Further, this data might provide insight and prompt future research as to how to engage more people into resistance training.