School of Sport, Exercise and Health - Te Kura Hākinakina

Permanent link for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10292/1542

Research in the School of Sport, Exercise and Health covers sport and activity-related areas, as well as performance, nutrition, coaching and human potential. AUT is the home of New Zealand's top sport and fitness facility, AUT Millennium, and the Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ) is New Zealand’s number one sports research institute.

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Differences Between the Sexes in Concussion Knowledge and Attitudes in Community Football (Soccer) Players in New Zealand
(Elsevier BV, 2025-02-16) Hardaker, Natalie J; Hume, Patria A; Collins, Juno Barnett; King, Doug A; Sims, Stacy T; Selfe, James
Objectives: To evaluate self-reported concussion knowledge and attitudes in community football players in New Zealand, comparisons were made between the sexes and those with and without history of concussion. Design: Cross-sectional cohort study. Methods: The Rosenbaum Concussion Knowledge and Attitudes Survey (RoCKAS) was used for data collection and analysis. Players were recruited through the New Zealand Football registered player database. Results: Seventy-four players had data eligible for inclusion (55 % female). Thirty-four players (45 %) had previously diagnosed concussion (56 % female). Mean Concussion Knowledge Index (CKI) scores were significantly (p = 0.002) higher for male (20.8 ± 1.4) than female (19 ± 3.7) players. There were no significant sex differences in mean Concussion Attitude Index (CAI) scores (female 63.7 ± 11.4, male 65.6 ± 6.0; p = 0.427). Surprisingly, 32 % female and 39 % male players indicated that they would play on with symptoms of concussion. Comparison within female players showed a significantly higher CKI (20.3 ± 1.7 versus 18.8 ± 2.6; p = 0.025) and higher CAI (66.5 ± 4.9 versus 64.1 ± 5.9; p = 0.151) in players with a history of concussion. There were no within male player trends for CKI or CAI. Conclusions: Male players had a notably higher concussion knowledge (CKI) than female players. Females with a previously diagnosed concussion also had a notably higher CKI than female players with no concussion history. Therefore, healthcare professionals could play a key education role when managing players with concussion. Given over a third of players indicated that they would play on with symptoms of concussion, education should focus on short- and long-term impacts of concussion and potential consequences of concussion.
Durability as an Index of Endurance Exercise Performance: Methodological Considerations
(Wiley, 2025-03-27) Hunter, Ben; Maunder, Ed; Jones, Andrew M; Gallo, Gabriele; Muniz-Pumares, Daniel
Endurance athletes routinely complete physiological assessments to predict performance, inform training programmes and monitor subsequent training adaptations. This profiling is typically performed with the athlete in a 'fresh' (i.e., rested) condition, but physiological profiling variables deteriorate during prolonged exercise. Durability has been defined as the resilience to the deterioration of physiological variables and performance during or following prolonged exercise. Herein, we review the current approaches to measure durability. The construction of the fatiguing protocol affects durability profiles, with greater relative intensity and duration resulting in more marked deterioration of baseline measures. The design of durability assessments should control for factors that could impact durability measurements, such as nutrition and environmental characteristics, to ensure that outcomes are repeatable and can be compared between athletes or over time in the same athlete. The selection of these parameters should be based on the proposed research question or applied context and take account of the training status of the athlete. Accordingly, this review highlights important considerations to ensure that protocols for profiling durability in research and applied practice are appropriate.
Elimination Reintroduction Diets and Oral Food Challenge in Adults with Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Scoping Review
(Cambridge University Press, 2025-04-04) McNeill, Julianne; Zinn, Caryn; Mearns, Gael; Grainger, Rebecca
Many people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) believe that certain foods may influence disease activity. Elimination reintroduction diets and oral food challenges are dietary strategies used to identify foods that may exacerbate symptoms. This review summarises and appraises the literature on elimination diet interventions that include food reintroductions or oral food challenges in adults with RA. It describes study design, measures used to assess the effects of food exclusion and challenge, foods identified that may affect RA symptoms, and the measures used to assess the outcome of excluding those foods. A search of five databases, two thesis repositories and Open Grey was conducted to identify records published from inception to January 2025, using terms related to RA, elimination diets, and food sensitivity. Eligible records were screened independently by two reviewers, and data extraction followed Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines. Data is presented using a narrative synthesis approach with descriptive data analysis. Forty-eight records met inclusion criteria comprising 20 intervention studies (sample sizes 4-94) and 17 case studies, conducted across 12 countries (1949-2024). Interventions included single-food exclusions, few-food diets, low-allergen meal replacements, and fasting protocols. Reintroduction methods varied from a single food challenge to multiple reintroductions, with five studies using blinded challenges. Outcome measures included physician- or participant-observed symptom changes, clinical assessments, and laboratory measures, though these were heterogeneous. Findings reveal a lack of standardised protocols, dated methodologies, and limited contemporary research. Controlled studies are needed to establish evidence-based protocols, investigate mechanisms, and guide dietary strategies as adjuncts to RA pharmacological treatment.
What Factors Influence Head Acceleration During a Purposeful Header in Soccer Players? A Systematic Review
(Springer, 2025-04-24) Blyth, Rebecca; Farrell, Gerard; Zoellner, Anja; Ahmed, Osman Hassan; Bussey, Melanie; Galea, Olivia; Sole, Gisela
BACKGROUND: Head acceleration is often used as a proxy measurement for concussion risk. It is unclear what factors contribute to head acceleration during a purposeful header. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this systematic is to identify what factors influence head acceleration during a header and highlight areas that have not been explored. METHODS: Studies were included if they assessed the effect of an independent variable on head acceleration during a purposeful header. There were no exclusion criteria relating to age, sex, playing level, study design, or publication date. Databases included Scopus, Web of Science, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus and ClinicalKey, and grey literature was also searched. Searches were re-run in January 2024. Each included study underwent a risk of bias or quality assessment, using several tools owing to varied study designs (ROBINS-I, RoB2, modified Downs and Black and AXIS). Results are presented in tabular form, categorised by independent variable(s) and accompanied by a narrative results section. RESULTS: A total of 60 studies were included. Study designs included one-off measurements with variable(s), cohort, cross-sectional and randomised controlled trials (RCTs). Influencing factors included ball velocity and characteristics, header type, impact location, neck training interventions, fatigue protocols, neck strength, demographics, playing scenario and personal protective equipment. A wide range of heading trials and methods of measuring head acceleration were used. Results were conflicting for several variables. There was some consistent evidence that increased ball speed/mass/inflation increased head acceleration. Female players sustained greater head accelerations than males, and some evidence suggested that increased neck strength reduced head acceleration, but not in all cases. This review confirmed traditional neck strengthening is not effective in reducing head acceleration; however, adding neuromuscular exercises appeared to be effective. There was a lack of evidence investigating other systems that may affect head acceleration such as vestibular function, oculomotor performance, rate of force development and cervical spine proprioception. DISCUSSION: This review highlights the range of studies investigating head acceleration during a purposeful header. Included studies were of varying quality, and one limitation was the lack of transformation of the acceleration measures to a consistent frame of reference. Implications from this study suggest potential measures that may reduce head acceleration and therefore improve the safety of performing a purposeful header. These include reducing ball inflation pressure, limiting headers from long range/high speed balls (especially in children/adolescents and females) and ensuring neuromuscular exercises are incorporated into neck training programmes. Dynamic muscle strength outcomes, including measures such as rate of force development, are challenging to measure but should be considered an essential component of neck training when the aim is to reduce head acceleration in a ballistic task such as a header. The review is registered under the PROSPERO registry (CRD42022359294).
Prolonged Running Reduces Speed at the Moderate-to-Heavy Intensity Transition Without Additional Reductions Due to Increased Eccentric Load
(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2025-04-29) Barrett, Andrew MS; Maunder, Ed
Aim: To investigate the impact of prolonged running on speed at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, and whether increased eccentric load modifies exercise-induced shifts in the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. Methods: Twelve endurance-trained runners (4 females, 8 males, peak oxygen uptake 51.5 mL kg−1 min−1 in females and 56.1 mL kg−1 min−1 in males) participated. Following trials to assess speed at the first ventilatory threshold (VT1) on a 0% gradient and -10% gradient, participants completed two trials: (i) level trial (LVL): 120-min of running at 0% gradient and (ii) downhill trial (DH): 120-min of running with 90-min at 0% gradient and 6 × 5-min intervals at -10% gradient (DH). Running was conducted at 90% of VT1 speed for respective gradients. Speed at VT1 on 0% gradient, perceived leg muscle soreness, and maximal voluntary isometric knee extensor torque were assessed pre- and post-prolonged exercise. Results: An effect of time was observed for speed at VT1 (∆-6.2 ± 3.6% in LVL and ∆-7.6 ± 3.2% in DH, P < 0.001), with no effect of condition (LVL vs. DH, P = 0.382), or time × condition interaction (P = 0.295). Reduced metabolic energy expenditure (metabolic power) significantly contributed to the reduced speed at VT1 in both trials (P < 0.001), whereas changes in running economy (energetic efficiency) did not (P = 0.228). Conclusion: Prolonged moderate-intensity running reduced speed at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, but this was not exacerbated by increased eccentric load. Reduced speed at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition following prolonged running was primarily attributed to decreased metabolic power.
Association Between Salivary and Blood Hormone Concentrations Using an Automated Electrochemiluminescence Immunoassay Technique: Challenges and Pitfalls
(Wiley, 2025-05-05) Hardaker, NJ; Hume, PA; Sims, ST; Stewart, T; King, DA
Blood-based measures are considered the gold standard for evaluating steroid hormone concentrations, particularly for confirmation of hormone profiles in female-specific research. However, saliva sampling offers several advantages: it can be collected independently by participants, is less invasive and might be a more time- and cost-effective solution. This preliminary study explored associations between salivary and blood plasma hormone (oestrogen, progesterone and cortisol) concentrations using an automated electrochemiluminescence immunoassay technique. Eight healthy, physically active females with a regular natural menstrual cycle provided: (1) daily app-based menstrual tracking data; (2) daily saliva samples; and (3) two blood samples, each at different time points in the third to fifth menstrual cycle estimated using the backward calculation method. Associations between saliva and blood hormone concentrations were analysed using repeated-measures correlations. Progesterone and oestrogen showed positive associations between blood plasma and salivary measures; (rm= 0.996, p < 0.0001 and rm= 0.705, p = 0.0507, respectively). Weak non-significant associations for cortisol (rm= 0.245, p = 0.526) were found. With further work to validate the assay and develop salivary reference ranges, the electrochemiluminescence immunoassay technique might be feasible for use in quantitative determination of progesterone and oestrogen in saliva and have application in research for within-participant monitoring of changes over time.
Development and Validation of the Global Urban Heat Vulnerability Index (GUHVI)
(Elsevier, 2025-12-01) Turner, R; Higgs, C; Sun, C; Resendiz, E; Peng, K; Cheng, X; Hunter, R; Boeing, G; Pugacheva, D; Chen, R; Adlakha, D; Kedar, V; Rosa, GL; Oyeyemi, A; Schifanella, R; del Pozo, PS; Peraza-Mues, G; Valson, J; Cerin, E; Puig-Ribera, A; Hinckson, E; Lowe, M
Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of heatwaves, amplifying heat-related health risks in cities worldwide. Inequities in heat vulnerability arise from disparities in heat exposure, built and natural environments and population attributes that impact heat sensitivity, and socio-economic determinants of adaptive capability. A lack of internationally consistent and accessible heat vulnerability metrics creates barriers to assessing inequities and benchmarking urban heat vulnerability between cities worldwide. To address this need, we developed the Global Urban Heat Vulnerability Index (GUHVI), applicable to cities worldwide, using open data to identify spatial inequities in heat vulnerability at the neighbourhood scale. Built from an Australia-specific heat vulnerability index, the evidence-informed framework developed for the GUHVI evaluates heat exposure, heat sensitivity and adaptive capability to holistically assess heat vulnerability. Quantitative validation for eight Australian cities demonstrated strengths of the GUHVI in spatial resolution and assessment coverage of the grid-based framework. Qualitative validation for nine diverse cities internationally was performed in collaboration with local subject matter experts with knowledge of each city context. The GUHVI addresses critical gaps in existing methods by enabling systematic and comparable measurement of heat vulnerability in diverse cities internationally. Available through our customizable open-source global indicator software, the GUHVI provides evidence on modifiable risk factors of urban heat vulnerability, to inform targeted adaptation strategies that promote climate resilience and reduce health impacts from heat.
Do the Effects of Interventions Aimed at the Prevention of Childhood Obesity Reduce Inequities? A Re-analysis of Randomized Trial Data From Two Cochrane Reviews
(Elsevier BV, 2025-03-04) Palmer, Jennifer C; Davies, Annabel L; Spiga, Francesca; Heitmann, Berit L; Jago, Russell; Summerbell, Carolyn D; Higgins, Julian PT; Inequity in Obesity Prevention Trialists Collaborative Group
BACKGROUND: Public health attempts to prevent obesity in children and young people should aim to minimize health inequalities. Two Cochrane reviews examining interventions aiming to prevent childhood obesity found that interventions promoting (only) physical activity have a small beneficial effect on BMI for people aged 5-18 years, as do interventions promoting physical activity alongside healthy eating for 5-11 year olds. We examined whether the effectiveness of the interventions included in these reviews differed according to eight factors associated with inequity: place, race/ethnicity, occupation, gender/sex, religion, education, socio-economic status, and social capital (the PROGRESS framework). METHODS: We collected data on change in BMI (standardized or unstandardized), subgrouped by baseline measures of PROGRESS factors, for intervention and control groups, from trial authors. We calculated the intervention effect per subgroup (mean difference), then contrasted these to estimate interactions between intervention and the baseline factors. We combined interaction estimates for each factor across trials using meta-analyses. FINDINGS: We collected subgrouped data from 81 trials that took place between 2001 and 2020, involving 84,713 participants. We found no substantial differences in effectiveness of interventions for PROGRESS subgroups in most scenarios. However, in the younger age group (5-11 years), the effect of interventions on standardized BMI appeared to be higher in boys (average difference in mean differences 0.03; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.06; 45 studies, n = 44,740), which was consistent in direction with the BMI effect (average difference in mean differences 0.06 kg/m2; 95% CI -0.02 to 0.13; 31 studies, n = 27,083). INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that those responsible for public health can promote these beneficial interventions without major concerns about increasing inequalities but should be mindful that these interventions may work better in boys aged 5-11 years than girls. More data are needed, so we encourage future trialists to perform subgroup analyses on PROGRESS factors. FUNDING: National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR).
The Effect of Lightweight Wearable Resistance on the Squat and Countermovement Jumps: Does Load Dampen the Performance-Enhancing Effect of the Stretch-Shortening Cycle?
(MDPI AG, 2025-11-18) Kyne, Hamish; Cronin, John B
This study investigated the effects of lightweight wearable resistance on the kinetics and kinematics of squat jumps (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ) with 2%, 4%, and 6% body mass (BM). Twenty male athletes (age: 18.05 ± 0.6 years; weight: 76.4 ± 7.6 kg; height: 182.4 ± 5 cm) were assessed on a force plate. Key variables included jump height (JH), concentric (ConT) and eccentric (EccT) phase durations, concentric impulse (CI), mean force (CMF), mean velocity (CMV), mean power (CMP), and relative metrics. Elastic utilization ratios (EUR) were calculated to quantify stretch-shortening cycle enhancement. Load led to decrements in both jumps but with varying sensitivity. With 2% BM the CMJ significantly reduced JH (−8.6%), EccT (−7%), CMV (−4.1%), rCI (−4.1%), rPP (−4.4%), and velocity at PP (−4.8%), whereas variables in the SJ were non-significant until 4–6% BM. EURs observed the greatest differences with 2% BM with JH, CMV, rCMP, and VPP all significantly decreasing (p < 0.05). The varying sensitivity to load across variables observed in the two jumps supports the hypothesis that SJ and CMJ offer distinct diagnostic insights due to varying MTU contraction dynamics and neural factors. This has implications for WR use in training. Further, absolute metrics showed limited load sensitivity. However, when accounting for body mass, relative metrics revealed substantial declines. This indicates absolute values can misrepresent the effects of WR loading.
Beyond Jump Height: A Comparison of Concentric Variables in the Squat Jump, Countermovement Jump and Drop Jump for Athletic Profiling
(MDPI AG, 2025-11-03) Kyne, Hamish; Cronin, John B
Jump height provides limited insight into movement strategies and muscle-tendon unit (MTU) contraction dynamics of the squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and drop jump (DJ). This study investigated whether concentric phase variables differ significantly across these jumps. Twenty-three male athletes (age: 18.1 ± 0.7 years) from various sports performed the SJ, CMJ and DJ on a force plate. Variables included jump height (JH), concentric duration (ConT), concentric mean force (CMF), relative concentric mean force (rCMF), and concentric force index (CFI). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in all variables across jump types. The CMJ led to the greatest JH (37.8 ± 4.1 cm) compared to SJ (34.6 ± 4.4 cm) and DJ (31.9 ± 5.0 cm). Conversely, the DJ produced the greatest rCMF (30.1 ± 2.7 N/kg) within the shortest ConT (125 ± 15 ms), compared to the SJ (16.2 ± 0.8 N/kg in 409 ± 48 ms) and CMJ (19.8 ± 1.0 N/kg in 273 ± 24 ms). Minimal shared variance and varied individual athlete rankings across jumps suggest that each jump elucidates different facets of MTU function. As a novel variable, the CFI showed poor correlation with JH (r = −0.103 to 0.002), suggesting it may provide insights beyond jump height alone. These findings support our hypothesis that SJ, CMJ, and DJ offer distinct diagnostic insights into varying MTU contraction dynamics and the physical components underpinning jump performance, indicating that longitudinal monitoring of the CFI and underlying components (rCMF/ConT) across these jumps could enhance athletic profiling.
Community Wellbeing and Lived Experiences During Urban Redevelopment in New Zealand: Te Hotonga Hapori – Connecting Communities Qualitative Study Protocol
(Public Library of Science (PLoS), 2025-10-03) Hinckson, Erica; Ivory, Vivienne; McPhee, Julia; Somerville Ryan, Megan; Chaudhury, Moushumi; Mackay, Lisa; Refiti, Albert; King, Abby C; Ka'ai, Tania; Duncan, Scott
Cities around the world are growing rapidly, and the demand for housing is subsequently increasing. Many governments have initiated large-scale redevelopment projects to address the problem but planning and implementation can significantly impact the wellbeing of residents. Evidence has shown that people-centred urban planning and redevelopment, including walkable areas, natural environments, and appealing public spaces, can enhance physical, mental, and social wellbeing. The impact of these designs on wellbeing is complex, and without community involvement, there is a risk that redevelopment may not meet the wellbeing needs of the residents. Community Wellbeing and Lived Experiences study is part of Te Hotonga Hapori - Connecting Communities research programme which aims to provide the evidence to improve liveability and wellbeing in neighbourhoods that are undergoing redevelopment. It seeks to empower communities by involving them directly in the redevelopment process. Guided by the culturally informed Te Hotonga Hapori Engagement Framework it comprises 5 components: i) Active relationship building; ii) Historical/cultural realities; iii) Community aspirations; iv) Building bridges; and v) Activation of neighbourhood urban and natural environments. Data collection will be undertaken using the Community Science Aotearoa process that is contextually specific to communities in New Zealand and adapted from the Our Voice Citizen Science Research method. Residents using Te Hotonga Hapori app will collect photos and narratives and share information about their lived experiences during the redevelopment using a six-step process of Engage, Discover, Discuss, Advocate, Change and Re-engage. Descriptive statistics will be produced in relation to the number and typology of photos and narratives collected. Qualitative thematic analysis will be used for narrative data obtained from downloaded app data, and community and group sessions. Braun and Clarke's Thematic Analysis Framework will guide researchers through an iterative process and themes will be developed using the Attride-Stirling Thematic Networks Analytic Tool.
Masterclass: Are You Getting the Most Out of Your Triple Hop Testing?
(Elsevier BV, 2025-11) Sharp, Anthony P; Neville, Jonathon; Cronin, John B
The triple hop test is a widely used, practical tool that allows physical therapists to assess an athlete's readiness to return-to-sport (RTS) following injury. However, recent consensus statements have raised concerns that hop distance alone may be insufficient to capture the complexity of functional recovery or to fully assess inter-limb symmetry, potentially masking readiness and increasing the risk of reinjury. In this Masterclass: exemplar kinetic and kinematic data for the triple hop are detailed; the utility of the quintuple hop introduced; the distinction between outcome and movement strategy variables discussed within an asymmetry context; and, the integration of accessible, cost-effective technologies within a tier-based framework for RTS assessment outlined. The aim of the article is to enhance the evaluation of movement strategies and support clinicians in making more informed and confident RTS decisions.
What Do We Know (and Not Know) About Adolescent Awkwardness in Youth Sports? A Narrative Review
(SAGE Publications, 2025-08-06) Borato, Lucas André; Whatman, Chris; Walters, Simon; Read, Paul
Adolescent awkwardness is commonly referenced in sports science and medicine literature and is believed to impact athletic development and injury risk in youth sports. However, this concept is not well understood, and a literature synthesis has yet to be conducted. The aim of this narrative review was to synthesize and evaluate the evidence for adolescent awkwardness. Specifically, we examined how it has been defined and assessed in a youth sports setting. A literature search was conducted in MEDLINE, CINAHL Complete, and SPORTDiscus via EBSCO Health with 21 articles meeting our inclusion criteria. Most authors believe that adolescent awkwardness is a transitory period in which youth experience decreases in coordination and balance, impacting athletic performance and potentially increasing injury risk, yet there is no single accepted definition. There is also no consistency or standardization in the tests used. Measures of balance and lower limb power may be useful for tracking athletic performance across maturation, but their ability to identify a period of adolescent awkwardness appears limited. Some studies observed a decline in sensorimotor function during the growth spurt, while others show continuous improvement or high variability between youth. Cumulatively, it appears that adolescent awkwardness is poorly understood and there is no consensus definition or assessment method, warranting further research.
The Effect of Resistance Training Proximity to Failure on Muscular Adaptations and Longitudinal Fatigue in Trained Men
(International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association, 2025-08-29) Robinson, Zac; Macarilla, Christian; Juber, Matthew; Cerminaro, Rebecca; Benitez, Brian; Pelland, Joshua; Remmert, Jacob; John, Thomas; Hinson, Seth; Dinh, Shawn; Elkins, Ethan; Canteri, Laura; Meehan, Caitlyn; Helms, Eric; Zourdos, Michael
Purpose: This study examined the effect of proximity to failure on hypertrophy, strength, and fatigue. We hypothesized strength gains would be superior in non-failure groups compared to those that include sets to momentary failure, while hypertrophy would be similar in all groups. Methods: 38 men were randomized into four groups (4–6 repetitions in reserve [RIR] per set, 1–3 RIR per set, 0–3 RIR [last set taken to momentary failure], and 0 RIR per set) and completed an eight-week program. Back squat and bench press strength, muscle thickness, subjective fatigue, muscle soreness, and biomarkers (creatine kinase-CK and lactate dehydrogenase-LDH) were assessed. Results: Bench Press strength gains were comparable between the 4–6 RIR (9.05 kg [95% CI: 6.31, 11.8]) and 1–3 RIR (9.72 kg [95% CI: 7, 12.45]) groups, while outcomes in the 0–3 (5.07 kg [95% CI: 2.2, 7.93]) and 0 RIR (0.71 kg [95% CI: -4.41, 5.62]) groups were slightly inferior. Squat strength gains were comparable between 4–6 RIR (13.79 kg [95% CI: 7.43, 20.28]) and 1–3 RIR (18.05 kg [95% CI: 12.12, 23.88]) groups, but data for 0–3 RIR and 0 RIR are difficult to interpret due to poor feasibility of the protocols. For muscle hypertrophy, our data do not provide strong conclusions as to the effects of proximity to failure due to the large variability observed. The indices of fatigue were largely comparable between groups, without strong evidence of the repeated bout effect. Conclusion: These data suggest strength outcomes are comparable when taking sets to either a self-reported 4–6 RIR or 1–3 RIR, while training that includes sets to momentary failure may result in slightly inferior outcomes (i.e., 0–3 and 0 RIR). However, the influence of proximity to failure on hypertrophy remains unclear and our data did not reveal clear differences between groups in any measure of fatigue.
Do Outcome or Movement Strategy Variables Provide Better Insights into Asymmetries During Multiple-Hops?
(MDPI AG, 2025-09-02) Sharp, Anthony; Neville, Jonathon; Nagahara, Ryu; Wada, Tomohito; Cronin, John
Multiple-hops performed horizontally in series effectively assess return-to-play readiness, as they mimic the propulsive and decelerative demands of sports. Movement strategy variables (kinetic variables) offer more insight into injury recovery than outcome-based measures (kinematic variables) like hop distance alone. This study focused on kinematic and kinetic variables to assess asymmetries during triple-hop (3-Hop) and quintuple-hop (5-Hop) tests with 44 male athletes from university sports clubs and teams. The aim was to determine the magnitude and potential direction of asymmetry and compare the sensitivity of kinematic and kinetic variables. Results showed mean kinematic asymmetries below 7.1% (range: 0.00 to 28.9%), while average kinetic asymmetries were as high as 38.8% (range: 0.0% to 95.4%). These findings suggest that kinetic variables are more sensitive in assessing movement strategy, providing more detailed insight into rehabilitation and return-to-play decisions. The study emphasizes the importance of considering both outcome and movement strategy variables in injury recovery. These results have practical applications for clinicians and coaches supporting those in return-to-play scenarios, as well as those addressing performance deficits, therefore offering valuable information to refine exercise prescriptions and athletic program design.
The Training Effects of Wearable Resistance on Throwing Performance in Collegiate Baseball Pitchers: A Pilot Study
(Human Kinetics, 2025-06-11) Job, Trey DW; Cross, Matthew R; Cronin, John B
Purpose: The objective of this study was to explore the effects of training using wearable resistance (WR) applied above the elbow of the throwing arm on throwing velocity, arm speed, shoulder internal and external rotation, strength, and range of motion in baseball pitchers. Methods: College baseball pitchers (N = 17) participated in a volume-matched 6-week throwing program, twice per week, unloaded (quasi-control) or with WR added to the upper arm (intervention). Arm speed was measured with an inertial sensor, throwing velocity via radar gun, shoulder rotator peak force (Fₘₐₓ) with a strain gauge, and range of motion by a goniometer, before and after training. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine differences between groups, time (pre and post), and their interaction with random intercepts for participants. Results: A significant effect from pretesting to posttesting was observed in external-rotation range of motion (η²ₚ =.456, P = .005) and tended to increase more in the control group (interaction, η²ₚ =.261, P = .047). Otherwise, no other statistically significant differences were observed. Conclusion: This was the first WR training study with pitchers, and the lack of clear improvement using upper-arm WR loading was notable. Future researchers should explore the efficacy of lower-arm loading and/or potentially increase training volume as a means of stimulating adaptation.
Acute Effects of Wearable Resistance Applied to the Throwing Arm on Performance in Baseball Pitchers
(Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2024-11-05) Job, Trey; Cronin, John; Crotin, Ryan; Cross, Matthew
This research examined the acute effects of wearable resistance (WR) placed above and below the elbow of the throwing arm of baseball pitchers on throwing characteristics. Ten high school or collegiate baseball pitchers (19.5 6 2.4 years) performed a randomized throwing assessment with and without WR (100, 150, and 200 g) secured to the throwing arm above and below the elbow. Subjects wore an inertial sensor at the elbow to record arm speed; throwing velocity was measured by radar and temporal aspects (stride phase and pitch phase) measured by video. A repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc analyses was used to test the influence of load magnitude and placement, with statistical significance set at p , 0.05. On average, loading significantly influenced arm speed and throwing velocity (h2 p 5 0.32–0.41, p , 0.05), and the effect of loading varied by placement (i.e., above and below elbow) for the latter (h2 p 5 0.64, p , 0.001). Above elbow loading had no significant effect on the throwing variables measured. For below elbow, there were large decreases in arm speed for 150-g and 200-g loads compared with the unloaded trials (25.13 to 26.52%, d 5 0.82–1.03, p , 0.05) and small-to-moderate decreases in throwing velocity with all loads (21.8 to 22.7%,d50.45–0.67,p,0.01). Overall, WR did not significantly alter phase timing. Our results may indicate the effects of WR differences by placement and may have utility in providing graduated overload to throwing musculature, without clearly influencing timing while throwing.
Relationship of Shoulder Internal and External Rotation Peak Force and Rate of Force Development to Throwing Velocity in High School and Collegiate Pitchers
(Elsevier BV, 2024-11) Job, Trey DW; Cross, Matthew R; Cronin, John B
The purpose of this research was to characterize the difference between high school (HS) and collegiate pitcher’s throwing velocity, shoulder internal (IR) and external rotator (ER) maximum strength (Fmax) and rate of force development (RFD) and explore relationships between these measures. Competitive HS and collegiate pitchers (n = 26) participated in a single session assessment in which shoulder rotator isometric Fmax and RFD were quantified via a portable strain gauge device and throwing velocity via radar. Paired t-tests, stepwise linear regression models and correlational analyses were used to answer the questions of interest. No significant differences (p > 0.05) in pitching velocity were observed between HS and collegiate pitchers, and all pitchers were pooled into one sample for subsequent analyses. For both IR and ER models, the explained variance of Fmax with throwing velocity was small (R2 = 0.12–0.13). RFD and arm length did not contribute to the models. Large correlations (r ≥ 0.50; p < 0.001) were observed between IR and ER for Fmax and RFD measures, as well as between Fmax and RFD for IR and ER. In terms of throwing velocity, having strong IR and ER Fmax capabilities would seem more important than the ability to express force quickly in this cohort.
Shoulder Internal and External Rotation Strength Assessment in Baseball Pitchers: Normative Data and Reliability
(National Strength & Conditioning Association (NSCA), 2025-05-01) Job, Trey DW; Cross, Matthew R; Cronin, John B
Rotator cuff strength assessments are valuable for monitoring throwing athlete injury and performance status. Portable technology enables "in-field" assessment and, therefore, increases utility. The purpose of this study was to quantify the reliability of strain gauge technology for measuring shoulder rotator strength and provide normative strength values for high school and college pitchers. Subjects (n = 15) participated in 3 testing sessions consisting of 5 maximal isometric shoulder internal rotation (IR) and 5 external rotation trials separated by 7 days. Variables of interest included peak force (Fmax), peak torque (Tmax), rate of force development, and rate of torque development. Coefficients of variation ranged from 4.3 to 5.8% for peak values and 16.0-28.5% for rate measures. Intraclass correlation coefficient estimates ranged from 0.79 to 0.89 for peak values, and 0.80-0.91 for rate measures, with IR typically marginally better than ER. Although practitioners need to be mindful of managing error (e.g., through familiarity), peak measures of rotator cuff strength assessed using portable strain gauge are promising for simple field-based monitoring of shoulder health for throwing athletes.
Gestational Diabetes Detection Thresholds and Infant Growth, Nutrition, and Neurodevelopment at 12–18 Months: A Prospective Cohort Study Within a Randomized Trial
(Springer Science and Business Media LLC, 2025-09-05) Amitrano, F; Manerkar, K; Alsweiler, JM; Conlon, CA; Crowther, CA; Edlin, R; Harding, JE; McCowan, LME; Meyer, MP; Rowan, JA; Rush, EC; McKinlay, CJD
Objective: To assess the impact of gestational diabetes(GDM) detection thresholds on infant growth, nutrition, and neurodevelopment at 12-18 months. Design: Prospective cohort study within the GEMS trial(ACTRN12615000290594), which randomized pregnant women to detection of GDM using lower or higher glycemic criteria. The main outcomes were overweight/rapid weight gain; food approach appetitive score; energy intake; cognitive z-score. Result: Compared to control infants, those exposed to GDM detected and treated by higher criteria or by lower but not higher criteria that was untreated, were less likely to have increased overweight/rapid weight gain, possibly with lower energy intake. There were no important differences in appetite and cognition. Infants exposed to GDM by lower but not higher criteria that was treated were similar to controls. Conclusion: Exposure to treated GDM or untreated GDM detected by lower but not higher criteria, was not associated with increased infant risk factors for obesity or adverse cognitive outcomes.

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